2. The Context of Cybersecurity: Cyberspace 39 inspected by layer. It even provides visibility all the way down to the 1s and 0s (displayed as hexadecimal digits) to help remove as much mystery as possible—at the end of the day, it really is just 1s and 0s! Figure 2.15 shows a packet capture for the network traffic involved in navigating to a simple website. The user types the URL in the address bar of the browser, hits enter, and instantly the webpage appears. Meanwhile, at least six packets had to be sent and received (three roundtrips) in order for the web page to be downloaded. Figure 2.15 A Wireshark packet capture. 2.5 The Frontiers of Computing Artificial intelligence and quantum computing are at the forefront of computing technology and have ramifications for cybersecurity. In keeping with its foundational emphasis, these topics are not addressed at length in this textbook, but this section includes a short primer on both technologies and some summary thoughts on their impact on cybersecurity. 2.5.1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) “THE HEAD AND IN FRONTAL ATTACK ON AN ENGLISH WRITER THAT THE CHARACTER OF THIS POINT…” - Statistically chosen English words using a “second-order word approximation” in Claude Shannon’s, “A Mathematical Theory of Communication,” anticipating the development of generative AI Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) might seem to contradict this chapter’s claim that the appearance of intelligence in computers is actually entirely due to human intelligence that extracts meaning from their computations. AI is cutting edge computing technology that performs at human-like levels or better. In every era of computing, AI
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