Channels, Fall 2018

Channels • 2018 • Volume 3 • Number 1 Page 81 division of labor that leads to competition among staff members through overlapping jurisdictions and organizational ambiguity. Also referred to as adhocracy, this model relies on the unsystematic use of individuals and non-routine channels to advise the president (Porter, 1980). The competitive model is highly diverse and thrives on outside input, both politically and technically. While only one president—Franklin D. Roosevelt—has ever used this model in the White House, there appears to be a resurgence of this style of management at the beginning of Donald Trump's administration in a White House marked by multiple factions of the Republican party (Pfiffner, 2017). This model benefits the presidency by fostering a creative tension that helps to produce new and innovative ideas. While the ideas are creative, the policies they produce are often less developed due to the emphasis on political feasibility over the best answer (Pika, 1988). Another benefit stems from the ambiguity of the organizational structure of the competitive method, in which the only source of resolution for the conflict that the competitive method naturally instigates is the president himself. This keeps the president involved and in control of the entire operation of his White House. The fatal flaw of the competitive method, however, is the fact that it places unattainable demands on a single individual (Pika, 1988). Few presidents have the accessibility and emotional stability required to be the broker of conflict that this model encourages. Collegial Model . The collegial model, in which multiple advisors are directly accessible to the president in "spokes of a wheel" fashion, was used by John F. Kennedy, Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter. Those who employ the collegial model aim to obtain the benefits of the formalistic and competitive model while avoiding the worst drawbacks. Using this model, presidents avoid a strong COS while maintaining an open-door policy to a number of advisors who specialize in different areas. The multiple advocacy advisement pattern is most closely correlated with the collegial model, an open system of decision-making based on the inclusion of competing views presented by advocates whose positions are coordinated by an honest broker—normally the COS (Porter, 1980). The collegial model allows for greater team-based problem-solving, and when functioning at its peak potential, it may represent the optimal response to the unpredictable nature of the American presidency (Buchanan, 1990). However, when the collegial model is not operating at peak functionality, the model runs risk of groupthink, when pressures for conformity cloud the decision-making process (Pika, 1988). 4 Even with its many benefits, many scholars caution against the collegial system because it places a substantial demand on the president's time and attention (Pika, 1988). Additionally, maintaining an environment in which individuals are free to work as a team requires intense interpersonal skills that few truly possess. Historical Development The advent of the modern COS roughly coincides with the dawn of the modern presidency. 5 Prior to Franklin Roosevelt, each president operated with only one paid, formal staffer. This arrangement continued until Congress empowered Roosevelt to add multiple 4 Irving Janis (1982) coined the term "groupthink" by analyzing the effects of small-group solidarity in situations where stakes are high, pressure is great, and secrecy is important. The danger in these instances is that the group will develop the illusion of invulnerability, underestimate the enemy and chances of failure, and fail to reexamine their initial assumptions. 5 See Figure 2: Chiefs of Staff, Nixon-Trump, 1968-2018