The Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Creationism (2018)

(hypothetical) common ancestor was less genetically complex. However, it is not as straightforward if the common ancestor was more complex, with significant genetic redundancy. While the evolutionary paradigm sees organisms as progressing from simple to complex, the creationary view is different. Creationists have pointed out that significant redundancy is part of the design of organisms (Terborg 2008). This is believed to provide a basis for organisms to adapt via genomic editing as they have reproduced and filled the earth (Terborg 2009). This implies that as redundancy is lost through genetic adaptation to diverse environments, different genes may become essential in different lineages. This would be a consequence of significant changes in genes that could previously take over for another function if the primary gene is inactivated. It is also noteworthy that molecular data from insects has prompted evolutionists to postulate massive gene gains to account for various insect orders from a common ancestor. This is because there are thousands of genes unique to these insect orders. In contrast, at lower taxonomic levels, there is primarily a pattern of gene loss that can account for the origin of the numerous extant species from a common ancestor (Rosenfeld et al. 2016). Thus, insect baramins encompassing an order, or a similar high taxonomic level, seem to be consistent with several lines of evidence. MECHANISMS OF DIVERSIFICATIONAND SPECIATION The amount of diversity observed within species of domestic animals and cultivated plants can be significant, sometimes with hundreds or even thousands of breeds or cultivars being recognized (FAO 2015; Janick and Moore 1996). In some monobaramins that were identified based upon hybrid data, diversity can be surprisingly large as well (Lightner 2010). The eKINDS project includes research on the origin of diversity, and the partitioning out of diversity to produce the wide variety of species we have today. Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is an enzyme active during antibody formation. It targets a specific motif of DNA (WRC; W = A or T, R = A or G) to induce mutations necessary for forming antibodies (e.g., see Lightner 2016). A program was written to identify regions of the human genome where the WRC motif occurs at high frequency. We hope to analyze the data to see if these regions correspond to highly polymorphic regions in the human genome, which might suggest AID has been active in this region. Scientists recognize the environmentally based sorting of ancestral alleles as a key factor in diversification and speciation. While the “culling” effect of natural selection is one means by which this may occur, the eKINDS project examined another mechanism: founder events. The history of the development of ideas on the founder effect was reviewed, including observational and theoretical work (Lightner andAhlquist 2017).While evolutionists generally assume the founder effect is a form of genetic drift (i.e., the alleles involved are random with respect to fitness), observational data suggests many animals choose the environments to which they are best suited. The post-Flood spread of animals, as they invaded newly forming habitats, would have led to an unprecedented number of founding events. Theoretical work on this subject suggests this would have set the stage for rapid diversification and speciation. NATURAL HISTORY OF SPECIFIC KINDS Observations of patterns within paradise kingfishers formed part of the basis for Ernst Mayr’s proposal of the founder effect (Mayr 1954). Thus, in conjunction with our recent paper on founder events (Lightner and Ahlquist 2017), we are examining kingfishers in general and paradise kingfishers in particular. Morphological traits, geographical distribution, and habits are being investigated to propose a biblically based natural history for this taxonomic group. The landfowl (Galliformes) are similarly being investigated. Ideally, we would like to use our newly developed statistical test on these taxa, but the necessary data for adequate testing to be performed is currently unavailable. CONCLUSIONS The eKINDS project has begun to explore new datasets and synthesize relevant scientific literature as it investigates created kinds, including the means by which they have diversified and filled the earth. Our newly developed statistical tool has used proteomic data, and initial results suggest that the level of the kind may be fairly high among insects (suborder to order), which is similar to what was found in some avian taxa based on known hybridization. Further work is needed to see what factors (e.g., number of taxa, taxonomic level(s) included, etc.) may influence our results, and if clusters can sometimes be above or below the level of the kind. The results need to be validated, and baramins should be considered tentative until confirmed by other lines of evidence that point to the same conclusion. As with other statistical tests, our method is limited by available data. Ideally, we would have the means to sequence and submit proteomic data from species of our choice. Perhaps God will open that door in the future. In the meantime, we are constrained to wait until sufficient data becomes available to investigate a specific taxon. Nevertheless, this tool appears to hold considerable promise for future creation research. Mechanisms by which organisms have diversified and filled the earth have begun to be studied in more detail. Investigations have begun on an enzyme known to be active in immune system DNA editing (AID). This enzyme is known to be expressed in the germline, but so far it has not been demonstrated to play a role in generating potentially adaptive mutations that can be passed on to the next generation. The founder effect has also been studied in detail, including both theoretical and observational based evidence on how it can play a role in diversification and speciation. Based on the biblical history of post-Flood migration to repopulate the earth, it is clear that founder events must have played a significant role in the sorting of ancestral alleles in many animal kinds. This would have set the stage for further mechanisms to increase the divergence between populations, eventually leading “in some cases” to speciation. Other mechanisms, including non-Mendelian inheritance (meiotic drive), need to be investigated in more detail. Finally, in depth study of various created kinds has begun with two avian taxa: kingfishers (Alcedinidae) and landfowl (Galliformes). By examining morphological, geographical, and life history data, we should be able to accomplish several things. First, it provides other lines of evidence to corroborate (or contradict) the boundaries of the created kind proposed by other methods. Second, it may provide a glimpse at what type of mechanisms are operating in particular circumstances as organisms diversify and speciate. Lightner and Anderson ◀ The CRS eKINDS research initiative ▶ 2018 ICC 188