parasitic. Mutualistic symbioses are ubiquitous in the biosphere and space prohibits descriptions of the many other intricate relationships being revealed. Data suggest that an interface MOSR is consistent with the relational complexities being discovered including, but not limited to, termite gut physiology, algal/amphibian symbioses, fungus farming ants, lichens, fish gut microbiomes, bacteria/squid relationships, Cnidarian/dinoflagellates (e.g., coral reefs), sponges, and symbiont mediated insecticide resistance (Allen and Lendemer 2022; da Costa et al. 2019; de Vries and de Vries 2018; Graham et al 2014; Kikuchi et al. 2012; Kim et al. 2014; Levy et al. 2021; Neuhauser and Fargione 2004; Pita et al. 2016; Rӓdecker et al. 2019; Roy et al. 2020, Tarnecki et al. 2017). We predict that our model will be a helpful starting point for future creation investigators for producing robust interpretations of highly complex organism interactions and ecosystem networks, from a young-age biblical worldview. IV. PARASITIC ASSOCIATIONS Parasitic associations are generally defined as long-term relationships where one organism takes nutrients from another. Though there are exceptions, parasites may not cause harm. From a MOSR perspective, removal of any one of the interface elements (e.g., authentication, protocols, or common medium) causes an interface system to cease functioning. Corruption of any element causes a system malfunction. These disruptions can explain how parasitic relationships have developed and how they can transition from mutualistic to commensal to parasitic. Two parasitic relationships are discussed in depth below: malarial protozoans Plasmodium spp. and schistosomiasis protozoans (Schistosoma spp.). A. Malaria protozoans Disease is nothing new to our species. Humans have been fighting pathogens with varying levels of success since the Fall when death entered creation. Malaria may be one of the oldest human diseases, discussed in dozens of ancient writings, including Hippocrates and Herodotus (Bruce-Chwatt 1988). Few human diseases have impacted human history the way malaria has. This disease contributed to the end of conquests by Alexander the Great, the fall of Greek civilization, the failure of some crusades, and killed more soldiers in World War II than actual warfare (Bruce-Chwatt 1988). Historians and lay people have always connected swamps and fevers, believing the causative agent of sickness to be “bad air” or mal aria. By the end of the 19th century, pioneering work by physicians illustrated that Plasmodium spp. are responsible for the unique pathologies of malaria. One of these physicians, Ronald Ross, was awarded the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1902 for his discovery of mosquitos as the vector of Plasmodium (Bruce-Chwatt 1988). While there are several species in the genus, the deadliest is Plasmodium falciparum. This parasite causes malignant tertian malaria and accounts for 50% of all malaria cases. Plasmodium falciparum triggers fever paroxysms where people suffer a fever every third day with temperatures often reaching 104°F (40°C) or higher (Edington 1967). Many of the patients never feel well in between paroxysms, some with continuous fevers and others with 24 to 36 hour long hot periods as compared with the 8 to12 hour periods with other species of Plasmodium (Edington 1967). Most sufferers experience feelings of being unwell (malaise) such as body aches, chills, and a loss of appetite. The fevers can be so intense that teeth chatter to the point of cracking and the bed rattles with the shivering. With this most virulent of the Plasmodium species, the disease can cause severe anemia and develop into cerebral malaria that is often fatal. More than 3.2 billion people live in areas with malaria risk, with more than 200 million infected at any given time (World Health Organization [WHO] 2016). The disease is only limited by the geographic distribution of species of Anopheles mosquitoes capable of transmitting the parasite (WHO 2016). When the mosquito feeds on its human host, P. falciparum individuals migrate from the salivary glands of the mosquito into the human bloodstream. Parasites migrate to the liver and reproduce at a prodigious rate. At this stage, some argue that the Plasmodium individuals have a commensal existence, not harming the host. In fact, some species of Plasmodium can avoid causing disease in the host for decades (Markus 2012). Once the individuals start moving through the life cycle, the symptoms appear quickly. A single protozoan delivered from a mosquito can generate millions of individuals after several rounds of reproduction. Parasites pour out of the liver and immediately infect red blood cells, feeding on the hemoglobin. In addition to destroying the red blood cells, the feeding produces an insoluble molecule called hemozoin. This dark pigment is diagnostic and triggers the human body to release tumor necroses factor (TNF), which causes the fevers and most of the pathology related to the disease. Parasites leave ruptured red blood cells and continue to infect new rounds of cells or are ingested by mosquitoes and potentially transmitted to new hosts. In many P. falciparum infections, more than half of all red blood cells contain parasite individuals. It is no wonder this parasite causes such a debilitating and deadly disease. How did something like this come from a creation full of life that the Creator would call very good? 1. Design interface P. falciparum individuals and humans are locked in an intimate symbiotic relationship. These relationships are like dances that have turned into wrestling matches. Both members of this parasitic relationship operate as autonomous beings capable of recognizing self and not losing distinct boundaries. Merozoites of the parasite contain several unique surface proteins, including merozoite surface protein 1 (Hoessli et al. 2003). This protein, in addition to marking the membrane as belonging to P. falciparum, is integral for parasite invasion of erythrocytes. Additionally, the parasite cells seek out the opposite sex to complete sexual reproduction. After several cycles of asexual reproduction within red blood cells, some of the parasites develop into macrogametocytes (female) or microgametocytes (male). If these cells are consumed by mosquitos having a blood meal, the microgametocyte will exflaggelate (cast off their flagella) in the gut of the mosquito and locate the macrogametocyte to fertilize. Human cells contain several cell markers and receptors for recognizing self, many of which are the focus of tremendous research. At least two of these markers are used by P. falciparum to recognize the specific human cells they need to invade for completing the life cycle. Many protocols for this symbiosis have been discovered and described. The wrestling match between P. falciparum and humans seems to be rather one sided, with malaria helping make mosquitos HENNIGAN, GULIUZZA, INGLE, and LANSDELL Interface systems model in key global symbiotic relationships 2023 ICC 235
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