these plants agriculturally, suggesting a Designer created the ability of plants to vary with us in mind. More recently some of the variation within cattle (subfamily Bovinae; Lightner 2007) and sheep and goats (subfamily Caprinae; Lightner 2006) was discussed as evidence was presented that members of the respective subfamilies are related. As part of the eKINDS project, diversity in landfowl was evaluated (Ahlquist and Lightner 2020). An overall observation is that the color and morphology of various structures can often vary. For example, in bovids the size, shape, and number of horns may vary. In many taxa, the length, texture, and color of feathers or hair often vary within a kind. This phenomenon is also readily apparent in our modern dog breeds where limb and muzzle proportions vary, in addition to coat colors. These observations further confirm that variation has non-random patterns. Variation can be adaptive for the organism, helpful to humans in the agricultural use of the species, or just provide beauty and interest in our varieties of flowers or breeds of pets. This fits well with a biblical history where God created the world. He designed plants and animals with the ability to adapt so they could fill the earth and it would be inhabited (Genesis 1; 8:16-19; Isaiah 45:18). In his kindness to us, God designed many creatures with the ability to change in ways that benefit us agriculturally. The overwhelming nature of this kindness to us is displayed in the beauty and interesting variety in Creation and our ability to appreciate and enjoy it (Psalm 104:24). The occasional appearance of gross deformity which does not fit easily in the above categories is a reminder that we live in a fallen world (Genesis 3) and should be awaiting our final redemption (Romans 8:23; Ephesians 1:13-14). Genetic diversity also needs to be evaluated; it can take many forms. For example, there may be differences in specific nucleotide base pairs (single nucleotide polymorphisms; SNPs), apparent insertions or deletions of DNA (indels), differences in the number of copies of a specific region of DNA (copy number variant; CNV, or variable number tandem repeats; VNTR), other structural rearrangements (including inversions and chromosomal fusions/fissions), and movement of transposable elements (which are another type of indel). There has been considerable discussion of the latter as a means of inducing potentially adaptive variation (Terborg 2009), but that is beyond the scope of this paper. A survey of genetic diversity in canids revealed that some genes in dogs have considerable variability (Lightner 2009). Genes in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) were the most variable of the genes discussed, containing anywhere from a few dozen to over 90 different alleles. A portion of another gene had seven different alleles from VNTR. Karyotype differences were also noted in this and several other studies (Lightner 2007; Lightner 2008a; Ahlquist and Lightner 2019). These observations then need to be interpreted within the Genesis Creation/Flood history (Table 1). While we know that only two humans were created, and all others descended from them, Scripture does not explicitly state how many individuals were created for other creatures. One might surmise that their populations were not particularly large given the command to reproduce and fill the earth (Genesis 1:22). Further, Adam named the land animals and birds, but no suitable helper was found so God created Eve from Adam’s side (Genesis 2:18-24). This may suggest that the creatures Adam named were created in pairs, with two being the most common number of creatures within a kind, to make the need for a suitable helper obvious. However, since the fall resulted in the death of animals to cover Adam and Eve with skins, there may have been more than two for some kinds, unless there was the extinction of a kind immediately following the Curse (Genesis 3:21). At the time of the Flood, there was a significant bottleneck (drastic reduction in population size) for each kind of air-breathing terrestrial animal. The Ark included eight humans and a single pair of each kind except for clean animals and birds, which were represented in sevens. While the kinds on the Ark may not have held a one-to-one correspondence with the created kinds given it occurred significantly later in history, there is still sufficient information to be helpful to use in interpreting the information we find (Lightner 2021). Dr. Rob Carter (2021) has considered how various starting conditions and the impact of the Flood would affect the diversity we should expect today. Clearly, the most strategic creatures to evaluate are mammals from unclean taxa. This is because they would have been represented by only two individuals on the Ark, and thus carried a maximum of four alleles (two per individual) for any specific region of DNA. Also, many mammals have been well studied and there is considerable information available on them. Once we have evaluated the variation within a baramin and have a good understanding of the constraints the biblical history would have on the genetics of the ancestors, it is time to consider the sources of variation. SOURCES OF VARIATION When considering the sources of variation, it is important to consider the basics of biology that have been well established from the study of organisms in our world today. One of the basic characteristics of living things is that they respond to their environment. We have amazing examples of wonderful design in creatures that can adapt to many harsh environmental conditions including extremes in temperature, dark and nutrient-poor conditions of a cave, and the stresses of high altitudes. The initial changes always comprise physiologic and/or behavioral adaptation (Lightner 2014; Niyas et al. 2015; Rashmol et al. 2018; Tomkins et al. 2022). Therefore, in considering how animals adapt, this needs to be the starting point of our understanding. It is excellent evidence of a wise and loving Creator. Physiologic and behavioral adaptation isn’t the whole story. There are times when populations that have lived for many generations in, for example, a high-altitude environment have specific versions of genes (alleles) that have been demonstrated to be adaptive in that environment (reviewed in Lightner 2014). These are often in the same genes or pathways that are involved in physiologic adaptation to that environment. Where do these adaptive alleles come from? There are several possibilities: created diversity, accidental changes to DNA (random mutations), and genetic changes by design (mutations that are biased to be adaptive). In the evolutionary narrative, every allele at some point arose by LIGHTNER Review of CRS eKINDS 2023 ICC 244
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