three-dimensional (3-D) data visualization. Three visualization modes are possible: (1) bounded (select in-focus features) from out of focus and background noise view, (2) structural view, and (3) classification view (Boorboor 2016). 10. Neuronal activity mapper Kim, Perova, and Mirrione published an automated neuronal activity mapper they developed to help search for signatures of stress responses in the entire mouse brain. Their findings indicated distinct brain activity markings that correlate with adaptive and maladaptive behavioral responses to stress, providing a framework for further studies (Kim 2016). 11. Proposed architecture of human memory Rutishauser et al. published their proposed architecture of human memory. They focused on the medial temporal lobe recordings, including the hippocampus, where it shows two classes of cells: (1) those encoding highly selective and invariant representations of abstract concepts, and (2) memory-selective cells whose activity is related to familiarity and episodic retrieval. Visually selective cells can remain persistently active for several seconds, which revealed a cellular substrate for analyzing human memory (Rutishauser 2021). 12. Methylation of neurons Rizzardi et al. published several ways that neuron methylation takes place. Their findings showed how methylated epigenetic modifications correlate to specific expressions of heritable traits. They explored DNA methylation that results in stable transcriptional patterns in four brain regions, the anterior cingulate gyrus, the hippocampus, the prefrontal cortex, and the nucleus bens. (Rizzardi 2019). 13. Limitations of artificial neural networks Schaeffer et al. argued that there is no free lunch for deep learning in neuroscience. Deep learning is part of the machine learning methods family that deals with representation learning. Researchers have been using neural networks to model and mimic the function of brain grid cells. Grid cells are a type of neuron that is a crucial component in the brain’s navigation system. They help individuals know where they are in a three-dimensional position and move within the confines of that domain. Feeding training information into a deep learning neural network is not enough to produce the brain function that results in successful navigation with grid cells. Only when applying specific constraints not part of the neural network can successful navigation take place. As a result, it takes more than just neural network hardware to generate an operational neural network. The authors’ main observation is that deep learning models cannot reproduce grid cells capability simply from task training (Schaeffer 2022). B. Neural circuits and response experiments 1. Organic electronic sensor nerve driving a motor function Kim et al. published their experimental results of creating flexible organic electronics to mimic the functions of a sensory nerve that drives a motor function. The nerve collects pressure information from clusters of pressure sensors, converts the information into action potentials, and integrates these inputs together. Actuation and pressure measurements were done with a cockroach leg. They utilized organic-inspired materials and circuits in their design (Kim 2018). 2. Brain circuit findings from testing drosophila flies Huang, Niesman, and Arasu published their findings on brain circuits and how neural circuits interconnect. The authors developed a method that reveals synaptic connections of neurons of interest. The experiments were done with Drosophila flies. Experiments confirmed that by taking advantage of the molecular mechanism of a ligand (a molecular-level chemical bonding site of a cell), along with induced intramembrane proteolysis (a protein breakdown process), neuronal circuits could be traced (Huang 2017). 3. Experimental results of spinal cord circuit testing Bohm, Prendergast, and Djenoune published their experimental results exploring spinal cord circuits, focusing on cerebrospinal fluid-containing neurons that modulate locomotion directly onto locomotor central pattern generators. The cerebrospinal fluid-containing neurons form a mechanosensory organ that operates during locomotion to modulate the central pattern generators. Zebrafish larvae were used for the experiments (Böhm 2016). 4. Neuron activity mapping from zebrafish experiments Wanner and Vishwanathan published their results on neuronal activity mapping as neurons connect to synaptic connections. Their premise is that for a mechanistic understanding of brain neuronal circuits, a detailed description of information flow must be characterized. Neuron function must be linked to circuit structure. Since larval zebrafish are transparent, the necessary testing and experimentation could be done (Wanner 2018). 5. Vision system and simulation response comparison Ryu and Fried published their findings that compare the signals of a functional vision system in a mouse to those that are generated from electrical stimulation of the retina. The experiments investigated how different stimulation sites, and different stimulation conditions in the retina, shape the response of the mouse visual cortical neurons (Ryu 2018). 6. Neuron types in the neocortex Matani et al. published their results on the neuron subtypes in the neocortex, based on experimental research done with mice that had probes added to their brains to detect and process their responses. Their performance improved from conditioning tasks. Individual inhibitory neurons can be modulated in a subtype fashion, which highlights the versatility of neural circuits (Matani 2018). 7. Neuron memory experimental results Huckleberry et al. published their findings on adult-born neurons in the dentate gyrus, which is part of the temporal lobe portion of the brain in the hippocampal formation; it continues to produce new neurons throughout adulthood. The researchers explored how they continue to contribute to memory context, and they saw a relationship between these neuron cells and fear conditioning. Neurons born in the adult dentate gyrus integrate into functional circuits and are believed to contribute to cognitive and emotional hippocampus functions (Huckleberry 2018). 8. Neuron activity and memory human trial results Faraut, Carlson, and Sullivan published their experimental findings JOHANSEN Human brain function and the creation model 2023 ICC 313
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