throughout the Cenozoic and Mesozoic and is ubiquitous in plate reconstructions spanning these eons (Torsvik and Cocks 2017; Torsvik 2020). Understanding the progression of seafloor spreading is key for reconstructing the paleogeography of the Earth with all its implications from climate and sea-level variations to topography, orogeny, and notably the magnetic field history. It remains unclear how and when such supercontinents would form and breakup and what could be the typical dynamics leading from one supercontinent manifestation to the next (Nance and Murphy 2018). B. Catastrophic plate tectonics (CPT) The catastrophic plate tectonics (CPT) model for Noah’s Flood (Austin et al. 1994; Baumgardner 1994, 2018; Clarey 2016), aims to tie a variety of aspects of geology together in a conceptual or theoretical physical way. This model uses computer modelling and aspects of the modern theory of plate tectonics. However, CPT does not clearly address in time order key stages of Noah’s Flood recorded in Scripture. Formations representing the Flood Year’s receding waters and drying phases seem to have not been considered in a specific time sequence in the CPT model. This is despite the length of these phases being of the order of 7 months (Genesis 8:1-19). The impact of 40 days and nights ofrain (implying enormous and global erosion of land, mass flows and sea level rise) is not emphasised compared with sea level rise by the raising of ocean floors displacing ocean water onto the continents. The conventional plate tectonic role of ocean floor displacing water onto the continents in the formation of Cretaceous interior seaways (such as the Western Interior Seaway of North America) is not discussed in the CPT model. The CPT theoretical physical model lacks case studies tied to actual stratigraphic sequences on a full-depth, basin-wide scale in time order. Nomenclature of the geologic column (such as systems, for example, Cryogenian System and Cenozoic Erathem) is not applied to a regional case study, so it is difficult to place many geological features in their correct time or stage order within the CPT model. Subduction and mathematical modelling is paramount in CPT, yet the relationship to actual mappable stratigraphy in successive time order is lacking. The CPT model has runaway subduction and bounce-back causing tsunami deposition on continents (Baumgardner 2018). However, outside of the Pacific Ocean, subduction zones appear to be missing. A key example is around Antarctica. No runaway subduction would have occurred there since there are no subduction zones in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica, only spreading centres. From seismic wave anomalies it can be inferred that lithosphere slabs have descended to the mantle (van der Meer et al. 2018). However, I am not aware that any direct samples of Paleozoic ocean floor have been recovered from subduction zones. This has been described by a YEC group as “virtual reality rather than observational reality” (Akridge et al. 2007). The known age of the ocean floor is Mesozoic and Cenozoic (Seton et al. 2020). Some significant mappable geological features are not integrated into the CPT model, for example, diamictites, the Great Unconformity (contrasting with later continental breakup unconformities of varying ages for different oceans), the Mississippian-Pennsylvanian unconformity and passive continental margins. The Great Unconformity may be regarded as the most significant transition in the whole rock record (Peters et al. 2022). It is a globally recognised peneplanation surface on hard crystalline basement rocks, yet evidence of its deep erosion appears to lack an explanation in the CPT model. C. Surface erosion events A proposal has been made that surface erosion events enabled the development of plate tectonics on Earth. Accumulation of sediments at continental edges and in trenches then provided lubrication for the stabilization of subduction and development of plate tectonics. Sobolev and other secular authors focused on Neoproterozoic supposed “glacial” sediments as providing major lubrication by reducing friction on plate movement (Sobolev and Brown 2019). D. So-called “glacial retreat” Within numerous basins of the southern hemisphere, there is a significant association in time and space of so-called “glacial retreat” (“deglaciation”) margins with rifting sites marked by Carboniferous-Permian unconformities (Yeh and Shellnutt 2016). The initial drifting of southern continents may have been triggered by weakening of crust due to differences in weight on, and thus differing stress between adjacent regions, along with isostatic rebound. Increased fluid pressure would have enabled brittle failure, and fault swarm development. Crustal rebound would have induced decompressional melting and upwelling of mantle-derived melts along pre-developed fault zones forming regional flood basalts (Yeh and Shellnutt 2016). Fluid flow into fault zones alters their permeability and may aid episodic earthquake activity by promoting the generation of high pore fluid pressures and facilitating the formation of weak secondary minerals (Menzies et al. 2016). E. Introduction of seawater into the mantle A model has been described of return flow of seawater into the mantle resulting in hydration of the mantle, rapid sea level drop, and appearance of large landmasses. The introduction of seawater into the mantle would have drastically lowered the melting temperature and viscosity of mantle materials, both of which would have activated mantle convection to drive tectonic plates (Maruyama and Liou 2005). Such a scenario fits well with the proposed model of receding Noahic Flood waters leading to seafloor spreading. III. REGIONAL GEOLOGY Descriptions of regional geology are presented in this section, derived from an extensive literature review. However, evidences of Late Paleozoic so-called “glacials” are reinterpreted in favour of mass flows. The discussion section of this paper, which follows the regional geology section, provides an interpretive framework for the geology in a proposed young earth biblical model. A. Supercontinental fragmentation then global marine transgression 1. Neoproterozoic fragmentation and peneplanation Gondwana, the southern component of the Pangea supercontinent, is said to have included the continental crust of Australia, Antarctica, the Indian Subcontinent, South America and Africa, and to have existed until continental breakup and drift commenced (Torsvik and Cocks 2013) (Fig. 1). Neoproterozoic fragmentation of West Gondwana includes the division of southern Africa’s Kalahari Craton from the Rio de la Plata Craton of southeastern South America. Rift grabens separated the various Kalahari cratonic fragments (Frimmel et DICKENS Flood Waters Lead to Seafloor Spreading 2023 ICC 447
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