4 Burkholder ⦁ Opera Party points is difficult to present; however, there are hints from history that can lead to an acceptable conclusion. The state of politics during this time, which will be addressed later, was a fragile one, so treading lightly was necessary for composers while constructing their pieces. Two points to consider in the observation of politics in opera are the composer’s intent behind what appeared on stage and how the audience understood the performance. Allegory was the principal device employed by writers of opera, as well as other genres of art, to convey meaning beyond what appeared. Within allegory, writers could still clearly communicate their intention by making witty yet straightforward connections to real life. Examples of this include changing the names of real people such as Lambert and Fleetwood to Bertlam and Woodfleet in The Rump (1660) or drawing parallels to French history in The Duke of Guise (1682).17 Although it is not an opera, Caius Marius (1679) by Thomas Otway serves as an example of an allegorical play that incorporated political overtones. It was set in Rome so that the similarities between the acts and true events would not be as obvious. Otway’s tragedy indirectly dealt with the controversial issue of banishment. The treatment of his characters communicated that this practice would only lead to further political turmoil.18 An operatic example of allegory is displayed in Albion and Albanius (1685) by John Dryden which expressed support for King Charles II in the outcome of the Exclusion Crisis.19 This crisis arose from Charles II’s failure to produce an heir and Parliament’s mission to exclude his younger brother James II from his right to the throne; however, Parliament was unsuccessful.20 Perhaps even more crucial than the composer's intention in determining the power of politics in opera is the interpretation made by the audience. An opera’s political innuendo would only be effective if an audience could interpret the true meaning. In his article entitled “The Politics of Opera in Late Seventeenth Century London,” Robert Hume argues that “differently conditioned readers will respond differently.”21 It is safe to say that the audience had little doubt as to what events Dryden alluded to in Albion and Albanius. However, an example of a misguided interpretation is that of Queen Mary II after watching The Spanish Fryar (1680). She believed that the mockery of the daughter’s character whose father had seized the throne was aimed towards her 17 Hume, 28–29. 18 Hume, 30. 19 Hume, 28. 20 Black, 6–8. 21 Hume, 32.
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